Fair Allocation of Critical Care Resources

Last Updated 08/04/2020

Op-Eds and Blog Posts

• Joel Michael Reynolds, Laura Guidry-Grimes, and Katie Savin, “Against Personal Ventilator Reallocation,” Bioethics Forum, July 31, 2020.
• Daniel Du Pont and Jill Baren, “Ambulance Charters During the COVID-19 Pandemic and Equitable Access to Scarce Resources,” Bioethics.net, July 20, 2020.
• Nneka Sederstrom, “The ‘Give Back’: Is There Room For It?” Bioethics.net, July 16, 2020.
• F.M. Kamm, “Moral Reasoning in a Pandemic,” Boston Review, July 6, 2020.
• Jana M. Craig, Mark P. Aulisio, and Thomas May, “After the Surge: Prioritizing the Backlog of Delayed Hospital Procedures,” Bioethics Forum, June 19, 2020.
• Mario Picozzi, Federico Nicoli, and Paolo Severgnini, “The Role of the Ethics Consultant in Triage: An Italian Experience,” Bioethics.net, June 16, 2020.
• Hans Flaatten, Michael Bell, and Susannah Leaver, “Pandemic Priority Decisions and Triage, from Good to Ugly,” Journal of Medical Ethics Blog, June 14, 2020.
• Parker Crutchfield, Tyler S. Gibb, and Michael Redinger, “To Allocate Remdesivir Fairly, Give it to Communities that Bear a Disproportionate Burden of COVID-19,” STAT News, June 9, 2020.
• Donna T. Chen, Mary Faith Marshall, and Lois Shepherd, “Prioritize Health Care Workers for Ventilators? Not So Fast,” Bioethics Forum, June 8, 2020.
• Benjamin Herreros, Pablo Gella, Diego Real de Asúa, “Supra-Institutional Transparency: A First Step Towards Recovering from the COVID-19 Wound,” Journal of Medical Ethics Blog, June 8, 2020.
• Alaa Daoud and Ezio Di Nucci, “Is it Wrong to Prioritise Patients who have the Highest Chance of Survival During COVID-19?” Journal of Medical Ethics Blog, June 8, 2020.
• Mathias Wirth et al., “The Meaning of Care and Ethics to Mitigate the Harshness of Triage in Second-Wave Scenario Planning During the COVID-19 Pandemic,” Bioethics.net, June 3, 2020.
• Lynette Reid, “Maximizing Outcomes in Triage of Critical Care Resources – Is There a Consensus?” Journal of Medical Ethics Blog, June 3, 2020.
• Helen Turnham, Guy Thorburn, and Dominic Wilkinson, “How Should Non-Life Saving Surgery be Rationed?” Journal of Medical Ethics Blog, June 2, 2020.
• Vardit Ravitsky and Bryn Williams-Jones, “Pandemic Triage Protocols Lack Consultation and Transparency,” Policy Options, June 2, 2020.
• B. Corbett Walsh and Anna Nolan, “A Framework for Rationing Ventilators and Critical Care Beds During the COVID-199 Pandemic: A Response,” Bioethics.net, May 29, 2020.
• Joyeeta G. Dastidar, “Balancing COVID-19 Quantity and Quality of Care via Geographic Redistribution: A Matter of Social Justice and Pragmatism for New York City,” Bioethics.net, May 26, 2020.
• Alaa Daoud and Ezio Di Nucci, “Is it Wrong to Prioritise Health Workers or Public Figures During COVID-19?” Journal of Medical Ethics Blog, May 22, 2020.
• J. Bradley Segal, “Why I Don’t Support Age-Related Rationing During the COVID Pandemic,” Bioethics Forum, May 18, 2020.
• Marina Tsaplina and Joseph A. Stramondo, “#WeAreEssential: Why Disabled People Should Be Appointed to Hospital Triage Committees,” Bioethics Forum, May 15, 2020.
• Somnath Saha and Mary Catherine Beach, “A Model for Avoiding Unequal Treatment During the COVID-19 Pandemic,” Health Affairs Blog, May 14, 2020.
• Govind Persad and David Wasserman, “Diversity and Solidarity in Response to COVID-19,” Bioethics Forum, May 13, 2020.
• Neil Pickering, “Lives vs. Equity – Analysing the Dilemma in the COVID-19 Response,” Journal of Medical Ethics Blog, May 13, 2020.
• Susie A. Han and Valerie Gutmann Koch, “Physicians Should Not Be Forced To Determine Resource Allocation: Triage Committees May Reduce Physician Trauma,” Health Affairs Blog, May 8, 2020.
• David Blitzer et al., “Why Health Care Workers Should Receive Priority Care for COVID-19,” Bioethics Forum, May 8, 2020.
• Ann Mongoven, “Cherishing our Elderly and COVID Rationing,” Bioethics.net, May 8, 2020.
• Nneka O. Sederstrom, “Unblinded: Systematic Racism, Institutional Oppression, and Colorblindness,” Bioethics.net, May 7, 2020.
• Scott Hershovitz, “Hospitals are Having to Ration Essential Care. Can They Do it Fairly?” The New York Times, May 7, 2020.
• Rebecca Limb, “COVID-19: Should we Allocate Health Care Resources Based on Citizens’ Individual Contribution to Society?” Journal of Medical Ethics Blog, May 6, 2020.
• Francoise Baylis, “Canada Needs One – Not Many – Clinical Triage Protocols,” Impact Ethics, May 4, 2020.
• Eva Feder Kittay, “People with Disabilities are at a Disadvantage when Scarce Medical Resources are Being Allocated,” Stat News, April 29, 2020.
• Andrew Peterson, Adrian M. Owen, and Charles Weijer, “Is it Ethical to Forcibly Withdraw Ventilators from Nursing Home Patients for Reallocation to COVID-19 Patients?” Journal of Medical Ethics Blog, April 27, 2020.
• Elizabeth Tobin-Tyler, “In Allocating Scarce Health Care Resources During COVID-19, Don’t Forget Health Justice,” Health Affairs Blog, April 25, 2020.
• Jeremy Davis, “Withdrawing Ventilators During the COVID-19 Pandemic: When is it Justified?” Journal of Medical Ethics Blog, April 24, 2020.
• Valerie Gutmann Koch and Susie A. Han, “Denying Ventilators to COVID-19 Patients with Prior DNR Orders is Unethical,” Bioethics Forum, April 21, 2020.
• Deborah Hellman, “Doctors Facing Grim Choice Over Ventilators Told to Put Patients with Disabilities at the Back of the Line,” The Conversation, April 20, 2020.
• Charlene Galarneau, “Structural Racism, White Fragility, and Ventilator Rationing Policies,” Bioethics Forum, April 20, 2020.
• Roxanne Mykitiuk and Trudo Lemmens, “Assessing the Value of a Life: COVID-19 Triage Orders Mustn’t Work Against Those with Disabilities,” CBC News Opinion, April 19, 2020.
• Laura Guidry-Grimes and Katie Savin, “‘Will They Take My Vent? Ethical Considerations with Personal Ventilator Reallocation During COVID-19’,” Bioethics.net, April 15, 2020.
• Harald Schmidt, “The Way We Ration Ventilators is Biased,” The New York Times, April 15, 2020.
• L. Syd M. Johnson, “Prioritizing Justice in Ventilator Allocation,” Journal of Medical Ethics Blog, April 15, 2020.
• Nic Aagaard, Lynley Anderson, and Neil Pickering, “Not Only Benefit: Equity and Fairness in States’ Responses to COVID-19,” Journal of Medical Ethics Blog, April 15, 2020.
• Conversation with Sam Bagenestos, Dan Gorenstein, and Doug White, “Who Gets Care,” Tradeoffs, April 14, 2020.
• Joshua Parker and Ben Davies, “Maximising Ventilators: Some Ethical Complications,” Practical Ethics Blog, April 14, 2020.
• Robert L. Tsai, “Inequality During a Pandemic, Part II: Rationing Life-Saving Gear and Care,” Harvard Law Review Blog, April 13, 2020.
• Rosamond Rhodes, “Pandemic Justice: Clarifying Guidance for Resource Allocation,” Bioethics.net, April 13, 2020.
• Govind Persad, “How Triage During COVID-19 Can be Fair to Patients with Disabilities,” Petrie-Flom Center Blog, April 13, 2020.
• Hannah McLane, “A Disturbing Medical Consensus is Growing. Here’s What it Could Mean for Black Patients with Coronavirus,” WHYY, April 10, 2020.
• Ari Ne’eman, “When It Comes to Rationing, Disability Rights Law Prohibits More than Prejudice,” Bioethics Forum, April 10, 2020.
• Franklin G. Miller, “Why I Support Age-Related Rationing of Ventilators for COVID-19 Patients,” Bioethics Forum, April 9, 2020.
• Thibaud Haaser, “Rewarding Through Prioritization: The Limits of Reciprocal Obligation in Allocating Scarce Medical Resources in the COVID-19 Crisis,” Journal of Medical Ethics Blog, April 9, 2020.
• Şerife Tekin, “Health Disparities in COVID-19 Triage Protocols,” Impact Ethics, April 8, 2020.
• Keymanthri Moodley, “Tough Choices About Who Gets ICU Access: The Ethical Principles Guiding South Africa,” The Conversation, April 7, 2020.
• Joseph Millum and Govind Persad, “Fair Coronavirus Triage Guidelines – Not Business as Usual – Will Save More Patients with Disabilities,” The Denver Post, April 7, 2020.
• Daniel Sokol, “Where at the ICU Triage Protocols?” The BMJ Opinion, April 7, 2020.
• Angela Ballantyne, “ICU Triage: How Many Lives or Whose Lives?” Journal of Medical Ethics Blog, April 7, 2020.
• Joseph Stramondo, “Disability, Likelihood of Survival, and Inefficiency Amidst Pandemic,” Bioethics.net, April 6, 2020.
• Katie Savin and Laura Guidry-Grimes, “Confronting Disability Discrimination During the Pandemic,” Bioethics Forum, April 2, 2020.
• Daniel Wikler, “Here are Rules Doctors Can Follow When They Decide Who Gets Care and Who Dies,” The Washington Post, April 1, 2020.
• Jackie Leach Scully, “Disablism In a Time of Pandemic: Some Things Don’t Change,” IJFAB The Blog, April 1, 2020.
• Daniel Sokol and Benjamin Gray, “Should we Give Priority to Healthcare Workers in the COVID-19 Pandemic?” The BMJ Opinion, April 1, 2020.
• Joseph J. Fins, “Disabusing the Disability Critique of the New York State Task Force Report on Ventilator Allocation,” Bioethics Forum, April 1, 2020.
• Valerie Gutmann Koch, Govind Persad, and Wendy Netter Epstein, “Pandemic Guidelines, Not Changed Malpractice Rules, Are the Right Response to COVID-19,” Petrie-Flom Blog, March 30, 2020.
• Joseph Stramondo, “COVID-19 Triage and Disability: What NOT To Do,” Bioethics.net, March 30, 2020.
• Alicia Ely Yamin and Ole F. Norheim, “3 Human Rights Imperatives for Rationing Care in the Time of Coronavirus,” Petrie-Flom Blog, March 27, 2020.
• Ari Ne’eman, “’I Will Not Apologize for My Needs’” The New York Times, March 23, 2020.
• Marika Warren, “Roles for Ethicists in COVID-19 Response,” Impact Ethics, March 18, 2020.
• Susie A. Han and Valerie Gutmann Koch, “Allocate Ventilators, other COVID-19 Resources Based on Evidence, not Political Hunches,” Stat News, March 17, 2020.
• Rupali Gandhi and Angira Patel, “What if Two COVID-19 Victims Need Ventilators and Just One is Available?” Scientific American, March 16, 2020.
• Ezekiel J. Emanuel, James Phillips, and Govind Persad, “How the Coronavirus May Force Doctors to Decide Who Can Live and Who Dies,” The New York Times, March 12, 2020.

Policy Briefs

• Nancy Berlinger et al., Access to Therapeutic and Palliative Drugs in the Context of COVID-19: Justice and the Relief of Suffering, The Hastings Center, July 14, 2020.
• Lori Frank, Thomas W. Concannon, and Karishman Patel, Health Care Resource Allocation Decisionmaking During a Pandemic, RAND Corporation, June 18, 2020.
• University of Pittsburgh, Department of Critical Care Medicine, Model Hospital Policy for Fair Allocation of Scarce Medications to Treat COVID-19, May 28, 2020.
• Nancy Berlinger et al, Ethical Framework for Health Care Institutions and Guidelines for Institutional Ethics Services Responding to the Novel Coronavirus Pandemic, The Hastings Center, March 16, 2020.
  • Slide Deck: https://www.thehastingscenter.org/guidancetoolsresourcescovid19/

Academic Articles

Normative Approaches

• Jeffrey T. Berger and Dana Ribeiro Miller, “Corona and Community: The Entrenchment of Structural Bias in Planning for Pandemic Preparedness,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Sheri Fink, “Ethical Dilemmas in COVID-19 Medical Care: Is a Problematic Triage Protocol Better or Worse than No Protocol at All?” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Matthew K. Wynia and Peter D. Sottile, “Ethical Triage Demands a Better Triage Survivability Score,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Kayte Spector-Bagdady et al., “Flattening the Rationing Curve: The Need for Explicit Guidelines for Implicit Rationing during the COVID-19 Pandemic,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Parker Crutchfield et al., “Ethical Allocation of Remdesivir,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Govind C. Persad, “A Conceptual Framework for Clearer Ethical Discussions About COVID-19 Response,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Mark Fedyk et al., “Bioethics Emergencies Can Be Used to Perform a Real-World Test of Utilitarian Policies,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Jonathan H. Marks, “COVID-19, Pandemic Triage, and the Polymorphism of Justice,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Jon Rueda, “Examining Public Trust in Categorical versus Comprehensive Triage Criteria,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Teneille R. Brown, Leslie P. Francis, and James Tabery, “Embedding the Problems Doesn’t Make Them Go Away,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Neil D. Fernandes et al., “Ventilator Allocation for Pediatrics during COVID-19 – How We Avoided Drawing Lots for Tots,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Mark R. Mercurio, “The Moral Status of Newborns: Before, During, and After the Pandemic,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Andrew M. Courtwright, “When Exclusion Criteria Are Appropriate,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• George J. Annas, “Rationing Crisis: Bogus Standards of Care Unmasked by COVID-19,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Joona Rӓsӓnen, “Saving the Babies or the Elderly in a Time of Crisis?” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Marin Arnolds, “Racial Disparities in Preemies and Pandemics,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Nathan A. Shlobin, Joshua M. Rosenow, and Paul J. Ford, “Using Functionality Rather than Elective Nature to Characterize Neurosurgeries During Pandemic Triage,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Jordan A. Parsons and Dominique E. Martin, “A Call for Dialysis-Specific Resource Allocation Guidelines During COVID-19,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Mark Wicclair, “Allocating Ventilators During the COVID-19 Pandemic and Conscientious Objection,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Lavina Kalwani et al., “Reconceptualizing Triage to Incorporate Principles of Risk and Uncertainty: An Example from Deep Brain Stimulation Patients with Treatment-Resistant Disorders,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Toby Schonfeld et al., “Implementing VA’s Authoritative Ethical Guidance in a Pandemic,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Janet Malek, “Defending the Inclusion of Categorical Exclusion Criteria in Crisis Standard of Care Frameworks,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Kyle Ferguson and Arthur Caplan, “It’s Not Easy Bein’ Fair,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Jason T. Eberl, “Ethics as Usual? Unilateral Withdrawal of Treatment in a State of Exception,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Ryan H. Nelson, Bharath Ram, and Mary Anderlik Majumder, “Disability and Contingency Care,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Kevin M. Dirksen, Joseph W. Kaempf, and Nicholas J. Kockler, “Periviability in a Pandemic: Good Ethics Still Considered Essential,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Valerie Gutmann Koch and Susie A. Han, “COVID in NYC: What New York Did, and Should Have Done,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Rosamond Rhodes, “Justice and Guidance for the COVID-19 Pandemic,” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• H. Gwon et al., “Maryland’s Experience with the COVID-19 Surge: What Worked, What Didn’t, What Next?” The American Journal of Bioethics, July 27, 2020.
• Ryan M. Antiel et al., “Should Pediatric Patients Be Prioritized When Rationing Life-Saving Treatments During the COVID-19 Pandemic?” Pediatrics, July, 2020.
• Sridhar Venkatapuram, “How Should We Allocate Health and Social Resources During a Pandemic?” in Vulnerable: The Law, Policy, and Ethics of COVID-19, edited by Colleen Flood et al., Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, July 14, 2020.
• Silvia Camporesi and Maurizio Mori, “Ethicists, Doctors and Triage Decisions: Who Should Decide? And on What Basis?” Journal of Medical Ethics, July 10, 2020.
• Barbara Pfeffer Billauer, “The Bioethics of COVID19 Care in the Elderly: Ventilation and Vaccines,” Available at SSRN, July 9, 2020.
• Samuel Gorovitz, “Ventilators, Guidelines, Judgment, and Trust,” Hastings Center Report, June 29, 2020.
• Jeremy R. Garrett et al., “Our Next Pandemic Ethics Challenge? Allocating ‘Normal’ Health Care Services,” Hastings Center Report, June 29, 2020.
• Anita Ho and Iulia Dascalu, “Global Disparity and Solidarity in a Pandemic,” Hastings Center Report, June 29, 2020.
• Keymanthri Moodley et al., “What Could ‘Fair Allocation’ During the COVID-19 Crisis Possibly Mean in Sub-Saharan Africa?” Hastings Center Report, June 29, 2020.
• Laura Guidry-Grimes et al., “Disability Rights as a Necessary Framework for Crisis Standards of Care and the Future of Health Care,” Hastings Center Report, June 29, 2020.
• David Wasserman, Govind Persad, and Joseph Millum, “Setting Priorities Fairly in Response to COVID-19: Identifying Overlapping Consensus and Reasonable Disagreement,” Journal of Law and the Biosciences, June 26, 2020.
• Douglas B. White and Derek C. Angus, “A Proposed Lottery System to Allocate Scarce COVID-19 Medications: Promoting Fairness and Generating Knowledge,” JAMA, June 24, 2020.
• Panagis Galiastsatos et al., “Health Equity and Distributive Justice Considerations in Critical Care Resource Allocation,” The Lancet Respiratory Medicine, June 22, 2020.
• Angela Ballantyne et al., “Revisiting the Equity Debate in COVID-19: ICU is no Panacea,” Journal of Medical Ethics, June 22, 2020.
• Lucia Craxì et al., “Rationing in a Pandemic: Lessons from Italy,” Asian Bioethics Review, June 16, 2020.
• Denise M. Dudzinski, Benjamin Y. Hoisington, and Crystal E. Brown, “Ethics Lessons from Seattle’s Early Experience with COVID-19,” The American Journal of Bioethics, June 18, 2020.
• Leniza de Castro-Hamoy and Leonardo D. de Castro, “Age Matters but it Should Not be Used to Discriminate Against the Elderly in Allocating Scarce Resources in the Context of COVID-19,” Asian Bioethics Review, June 16, 2020.
• Lynette Reid, “Triage of Critical Care Resources in COVID-19: A Stronger Role for Justice,” Journal of Medical Ethics, June 16, 2020.
• Hans Flaatten et al., “The Good, the Bad and the Ugly: Pandemic Priority Decisions and Triage,” Journal of Medical Ethics, June 10, 2020.
• David Ian Jeffrey, “Relational Ethical Approaches to the COVID-19 Pandemic,” Journal of Medical Ethics, June 10, 2020.
• Amy L. McGuire et al., “Ethical Challenges Arising in the COVID-19 Pandemic: An Overview from the Association of Bioethics Program Directors (ABPD) Task Force,” The American Journal of Bioethics, June 8, 2020.
• Hans-Joerg Ehni and Hans-Werner Wahl, “Six Propositions against Ageism in the COVID-19 Pandemic,” Journal of Aging & Social Policy,” June 3, 2020.
• Lalit Kumar Radha Krishna et al., “The Role of Palliative Medicine in ICU Bed Allocation in COVID-19: A Joint Position Statement of the Singapore Hospice Council and the Chapter of Palliative Medicine Physicians,” Asian Bioethics Review, June 1, 2020.
• Vicki Xafis et al., “The Perfect Moral Storm: Diverse Ethical Considerations in the COVID-19 Pandemic,” Asian Bioethics Review, May 28, 2020.
• Julian Savulescu, Ingmar Perrson, and Dominic Wilkinson, “Utilitarianism and the Pandemic,” Bioethics, May 20, 2020.
• Michelle M. Mello, Govind Persad, and Douglas B. White, “Respecting Disability Rights – Toward Improved Crisis Standards of Care,” The New England Journal of Medicine, May 19, 2020.
• Mildred Z. Solomon, Matthew K. Wynia, and Lawrence O. Gostin, “COVID-19 Crisis Triage – Optimizing Health Outcomes and Disability Rights,” The New England Journal of Medicine, May 19, 2020.
• Benjamin Herreros, “Triage During the COVID-19 Epidemic in Spain: Better and Worse Ethical Arguments,” Journal of Medical Ethics, May 18, 2020.
• Catherine L. Auriemma et al., “Eliminating Categorical Exclusion Criteria in Crisis Standards of Care Frameworks,” The American Journal of Bioethics, May 18, 2020.
• Naomi Laventhal et al., “The Ethics of Creating a Resource Allocation Strategy During the COVID-19 Pandemic,” Pediatrics, May 2020.
• Colette DeJong, Alice Hm Chen, and Bernard Lo, “An Ethical Framework for Allocating Scarce Inpatient Medications for COVID-19 in the US,” JAMA, May 15, 2020.
• Marlyse F. Haward, “Should Extremely Premature Babies Get Ventilators During the COVID-19 Crisis?” The American Journal of Bioethics, May 13, 2020.
• Nancy S. Jecker, Aaron G. Wightman, and Douglas S. Diekema, “Prioritizing Frontline Workers During the COVID-19 Pandemic,” The American Journal of Bioethics, May 13, 2020.
• Emily Cleveland Manchanda et al., “Inequity in Crisis Standards of Care,” The New England Journal of Medicine, May 13, 2020.
• Diego S. Silva, “Ventilators-by-Lottery: The Least Unjust Form of Allocation in the COVID-19 Pandemic,” CHEST, May 12, 2020.
• Andrew Peterson, Emily A. Largent, and Jason Karlawish, “Ethics of Reallocating Ventilators in the COVID-19 Pandemic,” BMJ, May 12, 2020.
• Kathleen Liddell et al., “Who Gets the Ventilator? Important Legal Rights in a Pandemic,” Journal of Medical Ethics, May 11, 2020.
• Matthew M. Kavanagh et al., “Access to Lifesaving Medical Resources for African Countries: COVID-19 Testing and Response, Ethics, and Politics,” The Lancet, May 7, 2020.
• Thomas J. Bollyky, Lawrence O. Gostin, and Margaret A. Hamburg, “The Equitable Distribution of COVID-19 Therapeutics and Vaccines,” JAMA, May 7, 2020.
• Richard Huxtable, “COVID-19:  Where is the National Ethical Guidance?” BMC Medical Ethics 21 (2020), May 1, 2020.
• James G. Hodge, Jr., “Revisiting Legal Foundations of Crisis Standards of Care,” The Journal of Law, Medicine, and Ethics, April 28, 2020.
• Thomas A. Bledsoe et al., “Universal Do-Not-Resuscitate Orders, Social Worth, and Life-Years: Opposing Discriminatory Approaches to the Allocation of Resources During the COVID-19 Pandemic and Other Health System Catastrophes,” Annals of Internal Medicine, April 24, 2020.
• Susan Dorr Goold, “The COVID-19 Pandemic: Critical Care Allocated in Extremis,” The American Journal of Bioethics, April 24, 2020.
• Laurence B. McCullough, “In Response to COVID-19 Pandemic Physicians Already Know What to Do,” The American Journal of Bioethics, April 23, 2020.
• Julian Savulescu, James Cameron, and Dominic Wilkinson, “Equality or Utility? Ethics and Law of Rationing Ventilators,” British Journal of Anaesthesia, April 20, 2020.
• J.A. Singh and K. Moodley, “Critical Care Triaging in the Shadow of COVID-19: Ethics Considerations,” South African Medical Journal, April 16, 2020.
• Amy Solnica, Leonid Barski, and Alan Jotkowitz, “Allocation of Scarce Resources During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Jewish Ethical Perspective,” Journal of Medical Ethics, April 10, 2020.
• Chiara Mannelli, “Whose Life to Save? Scarce Resources Allocation in the COVID-19 Outbreak,” Journal of Medical Ethics, April 9, 2020.
• Scott Y. H. Kim and Christine Grady, “Ethics in the Time of COVID: What Remains the Same and What is Different,” Neurology, April 6, 2020.
• Govind Persad, “Why Disability Law Permits Evidence-Based Triage in a Pandemic,” Yale Law Journal Forum 130 (2020).
• Samuel R. Bagenstos, “May Hospitals Withhold Ventilators from COVID-19 Patients with Pre-Existing Disabilities? Notes on the Law and Ethics of Disability-Based Medical Rationing,” Yale Law Journal Forum 130 (2020).
• Deborah Hellman and Kate Nicholson, “Rationing and Disability in a State of Crisis,” Virginia Public Law and Legal Theory Research Paper No. 2020-33, April 6, 2020.
• Dominic Wilkinson, “ICU Triage in an Impending Crisis: Uncertainty, Pre-Emption, and Preparation,” Journal of Medical Ethics, April 1, 2020.
• Udo Schuklenk, “COVID19: Why Justice and Transparency in Hospital Triage Policies are Paramount,” Bioethics, April 1, 2020
• I. Glenn Cohen, Andrew M. Crespo, and Douglas B. White, “Potential Legal Liability for Withdrawing or Withholding Ventilators During COVID-19: Assessing the Risks and Identifying Needed Reforms,” JAMA, April 1, 2020.
• Lawrence O. Gostin, Eric A. Friedman, and Sarah A. Wetter, “Responding to COVID-19: How to Navigate a Public Health Emergency Legally and Ethically,” Hastings Center Report (March-April 2020).
• Douglas B. White and Bernard Lo, “A Framework for Rationing Ventilators and Critical Care Beds During the COVID-19 Pandemic,” JAMA, March 27, 2020.
• Samuel R. Bagenstos, “May Hospitals Withhold Ventilators from COVID-19 Patients with Pre-Existing Disabilities? Notes on the Law and Ethics of Disability-Based Medical Rationing,” Yale Law Journal Forum, March 27, 2020.
• Ezekiel J. Emanuel et al., “Fair Allocation of Scarce Medical Resources in the Time of Covid-19,” New England Journal of Medicine, March 23, 2020.
• Robert D. Truog, Christine Mitchell, and George Q. Daley, “The Toughest Triage – Allocating Ventilators in a Pandemic,” New England Journal of Medicine, March 23, 2020.
• Lisa Rosenbaum, “Facing COVID-19 in Italy – Ethics, Logistics, and Therapeutics on the Epidemic’s Front Line,” NEJM, March 18, 2020.
• Maxwell Smith and Ross Upshur, “Pandemic Disease, Public Health, and Ethics,” in The Oxford Handbook of Public Health Ethics, edited by Anna C. Mastroianni, Jeffrey P. Kahn, and Nancy E. Kass (New York: Oxford University Press, 2019).
• Armand H. Matheny Antommaria et al., “Ethical Issues in Pediatric Emergency Mass Critical Care,” Pediatric Critical Care Medicine 12 (2011): S163-S168.
• Leslie Wolf and Wendy Hensel, “Valuing Lives: Allocating Scarce Medical Resources During a Public Health Emergency and the Americans with Disabilities Act,” PLoS Currents 3 (2011).
• Daniel Patrone and David Resnik, “Pandemic Ventilator Rationing and Appeals Process,” Health Care Analysis 19 (2011): 165-179.
• Diego S. Silva et al., “Contextualizing Ethics: Ventilators, H1N1 and Marginalized Populations,” Healthcare Quarterly 13 (2010): 32-36.
• Jeffrey Kirby, “Enhancing the Fairness of Pandemic Critical Care Triage,” Journal of Medical Ethics 36 (2010): 758-761.
• Donna Levin et al., “Altered Standards of Care During an Influenza Pandemic: Identifying Ethical, Legal, and Practical Principles to Guide Decision Making,” Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness 3 (2009): S132-S140.
• Govind Persad, Alan Wertheimer, and Ezekiel J. Emanuel, “Principles for Allocation of Scarce Medical Interventions,” The Lancet, January 31, 2009
• Douglas B. White et al., “Who Should Receive Life Support During a Public Health Emergency? Using Ethical Principles to Improve Allocation Decisions,” Annals of Internal Medicine, January 20, 2009.
• Marcel Verweij, “Moral Principles for Allocating Scarce Medical Resources in an Influenza Pandemic,” Journal of Bioethical Inquiry 6 (2009): 159-169.
• James Tabery et al. “Ethics of Triage in the Event of an Influenza Pandemic,” Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness 2 (2008): 114-118.
• Lawrence O. Gostin, “Medical Countermeasures for Pandemic Influenza: Ethics and the Law,” JAMA 295 (2006): 554-556.
• Michael D. Christian et al., “Development of a Triage Protocol for Critical Care During an Influenza Pandemic,” CMAJ 175 (2006): 1377-81.
• Alison K. Thompson et al. “Pandemic Influenza Preparedness: An Ethical Framework to Guide Decision-making,” BMC Medical Ethics 7 (2006):1-11.
• University of Toronto Joint Centre for Bioethics, Stand on Guard for Thee: Ethical Considerations in Preparedness Planning for Pandemic Influenza, November 2005.

Empirical Approaches

• Gina M. Piscitello et al., “Variation in Ventilator Allocation Guidelines by US State During the Coronavirus Disease 2019,” JAMA, June 19, 2020.
• Armand H. Matheny Antommaria et al., “Ventilator Triage Policies During the COVID-19 Pandemic at U.S. Hospitals Associated with Members of the Association of Bioethics Program Directors,” Annals of Internal Medicine, April 24, 2020.
• Monica Schoch-Spana et al., “Influence of Community and Culture in the Ethical Allocation of Scarce Medical Resources in a Pandemic Situation: Deliberative Democracy Study,” Journal of Participatory Medicine 12 (2020): 1-14.
• Vahid Ghanbari et al., “Ethical Prioritization of Patients During Disaster Triage: A Systematic Review of Current Evidence,” International Emergency Nursing 43 (2019): 126-132.
• E. Lee Daugherty Biddison et al., “Too Many Patients…A Framework to Guide Statewide Allocation of Scarce Mechanical Ventilation During Disasters,” CHEST 155 (2019): 848-854.
• E. Lee Daugherty Biddison et al., “Scarce Resource Allocation During Disasters: A Mixed-Method Community Engagement Study,” CHEST 153 (2018): 187-195.
• Pius Krütli et al., “How to Fairly Allocate Scarce Medical Resources: Ethical Argumentation under Scrutiny by Health Professionals and Lay People,” PLoS One 11 (2016): 1-18.
• M.D. Christian et al., “Triage: Care of the Critically Ill and Injured During Pandemics and Disasters: CHEST Consensus Statement,” CHEST 146 (2014): e61S-74S.
• Meredith Li-Vollmer, “Health Care Decisions in Disasters: Engaging the Public on Medical Service Prioritization During a Severe Influenza Pandemic,” Journal of Participatory Medicine, December 14, 2010.
• Seattle and King County Department of Health, Public Engagement Project on Medical Service Prioritization During an Influenza Pandemic, September 29, 2009.